Public Administration

Government as a Catalyst: The Thompson-Perry Argument Support or contradict? According to the Thompson-Perry argument, collaboration involves interactive co-operation between two or more bodies with mutual interests (Stillman, 2009). The two groups are not always in the same domain or share similar interests, but they come together in a collaborative effort and combine their resources to achieve a common goal.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Public Administration specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The case study ‘Government as a Catalyst’ ultimately supports the Thompson-Perry argument. Although it may not be a perfect model of the Thompson-Perry argument, it contains three key elements that make it remarkably similar. First, it involves a collaborative effort between several stakeholders that have similar interests. Secondly, the stakeholders involved are all interested in making the situation a win-w in situation for all of them. Third, and perhaps most importantly, it follows Thompson and Perry’s process framework. The Philadelphia Municipal Wireless Network (MWN) is a perfect example of the initiative that involves ‘collaborative public management’ with the interest of the public, private sector and the economy as a whole to benefit. It requires co-operation of the public sector and the private sector, as well as the citizens, for it to succeed. With a MWN in the city, Philadelphia’s socio-economic potential was broadened. As a result, the local economy was improved, there is an increased communication at a cheaper price, and businesses benefir from a boost in the internet connectivity. Today, most businesses and individuals are significantly dependent on the internet. Finally, the Philadelphia MWN initiative follows the three key steps of the collaboration process: negotiation, commitment and implementation. The Collaboration Process Thompson and Pe rry maintain that collaboration is a process-oriented phenomenon involving negotiation, commitment and implementation (Stillman, 2009). This cyclic process is supported by the Game Theory. As research has shown for several times, during a period of a socio-economic dilemma, individuals are more likely to invest in ways that will change the system itself in order to promote joint outcomes.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Although a definite definition of collaboration does not exist, there are certain elements that all definitions must have. First, the collaboration process involves a number of stakeholders brought together by common interests with the aim of benefitting mutually. Secondly, collaboration becomes possible when the stakeholders create rules and structures that govern their relationship. Finally, the stakeholders interact through a series of formal and informa l negotiations. The process’ three key phases are all interrelated cyclically, and they are assessed by all stakeholders based on reciprocity. Negotiation is usually the first step in the collaboration process. During negotiation, different stakeholders interact with one another via formal bargains and informal sense-making. Once formal and informal relationships are formed and certain terms areagreed upon, the process moves to the commitment phase. During this phase, the stakeholders commit to the future of their relationship via formal contracts, the ability to solve free-rider problems and psychological contracts. Finally, the actions agreed upon are implemented. During this stage, an organized effort is put up by different parties to carry out the required actions. Implementation involves a high level of personal interactions and co-operation from different organizations. A Different Model? The ‘Government as a Catalyst’ case has all the classic elements of t he Thompson-Perry argument. The entire project has the three distinct steps of their argument, i.e. the negotiation, commitment and implementation stages (Stillman, 2009). At the initial phase of the process, the Philadelphia Wireless released a statement stating that they aimed to provide wireless internet connectivity throughout the city. The main purpose for this was to provide basic digital infrastructure for schools, businesses, community organizations and citizens (the stakeholders).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Public Administration specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More All these stakeholders would benefit from the availability of this technology to achieve different goals. As the negotiation process goes, this first step was vital in planting the seed of interest into the minds of these stakeholders. Philadelphia Wireless then got these stakeholders to commit to the process by negotiating with them and exp laining their intentions. They also took into consideration the role that would be played by all stakeholders in the process. They realized that the government, for example, was not interested in providing wireless internet, but was willing to give the private sector the necessary support it needed to make the project’s implementation possible. Once all stakeholders were on board, Philadelphia Wireless, a creation of the city, was given a green light to roll out the project. It is clear, therefore, that the process was a detailed model of the Thompson-Perry model. Public Accountability and Public Acceptability Meaning of terms According to Rubin’s text, it is reasonable to deduce that public accountability refers to the obligations that public agencies and enterprises, entrusted with public resources, have towards those that have assigned these responsibilities to them. In this case, the latter refers to the public, since it elects officials to public offices and entru sts them with the responsibility to manage public funds that they remit to the government through tax. The public officials have a responsibility to ensure the resources allocated to them are utilized to the benefit of the greatest section part of society over the long term. Public acceptability, on the other hand, refers to the degree to which the public agrees to a budget drawn up by the public entity responsible for managing public funds. The public accepts budgets that appear transparent, detailed and allocate the funds responsibly. Tension caused by Public Accountability and Public Acceptability The tension is caused by the difference in interests between the two parties. The public always wants, and has the right, to see clearly how their resources are utilized by people to whom they assign this responsibility. They work hard, pay taxes diligently and expect to receive acceptable services from the government through public institutions. Public institutions are given the respon sibility to ensure they provide different services to different members of society. Some of the key services provided by these institutions include national security, social services, and adequate infrastructure.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More As expected, different members of society are more concerned with different aspects of their lives. The lower class of America, for example, is more concerned about how much public institutions allocate to healthcare, while the upper class might be more concerned with more abstract issues like national security. The public institutions are faced with a dilemma, because of the fear of offending one group of people over another. Using the example of America, the lower class will feel more aggravated if public funds are channeled towards funding the war in Iraq while they lack basic needs. The upper class, however, feel as though public resources should be allocated to ensuring public safety, so that people are able to work hard and ensure they have basic needs. This dilemma applies insurmountable pressure on the public institutions, which must apply a delicate balancing act to their budgets and ensure all resources are properly budgeted for. As a result, they often end up in not pleas ing all sections of society, and the result is a public tension. Death of the Spy Satellite The spy satellite is a perfect example of how public accountability and public acceptability can cause substantial tension in public budgeting. In the beginning of the 1990s, the spy satellites that were gathering intelligence for the CIA were getting old and needed improved technology, particularly since global security had worsened in the post-Gulf war era. The CIA, therefore, decided to launch a number of lightweight satellites that would use radar and optical technology to spy on enemy locations and bring the information back to earth safely and faster than before. Each new satellite would cost approximately $1 billion to build, which is relatively cheap for a satellite, and about $450 million to launch. CIA’s ultimate goal was to improve national security, which was expects of them by the public. The budget was opposed, however, by the public – via congress – since i t was considered to be too extravagant. At the time (the mid 1990s), the government was searching for means of minimizing costs, reducing public spending and working on a shoestring budget. Congress argued that the project was not feasible in the long term, given that the plan was to spend approximately $5 billion in five years. The project’s budget was not acceptable to so many fragmented sections of congress, in which case the public most likely felt the same. Another Example Currently, the most contentious issue in terms of public-resource spending is the war in Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan. According to many estimates, the United States has spent between three and four trillion dollars. The war has also led to the death of approximately 236,000 people since it began ten years ago. The primary reason the country entered the war was to eliminate the external threat that terrorists posed to the nation, particularly in the wake of 9/11. When the country entered the war, its budget was not of a primary concern. The government had placed priority on protecting the citizens of America. However, ten years and nearly four trillion dollars later, the country ponders as to whether it was necessary to keep American troops in Iraq any longer. The US economy is reeling from the effects of the recession, and with rising costs of living, rising unemployment and increasing socio-economic pressure, tension rises as to whether it is still practical to support the war. While public institutions are accountable for the nation’s security, the public is finding it hard to accept the budgetary cost of a war that, it is argued, not helping improve security in the United States. Helco’s Concept of Issue Networks Reinventing School Lunch Helco’s concept on issue networks is unique: he believes that America does not pay as keen attention as they should to issue networks, particularly within the government. Issue networks, also referred to as ‘iron triangles’ by Helco and other scholars, are small alliances of interest groups who came together to promote single or numerous government policies. Their support of these policies is centered upon a mutual benefit that they receive from this policy in place. The National School Lunch Program, launched in the United States in 1945, was intended to make sure that all school-going children received at least one meal a day. This was a national drive to lower levels of malnutrition, promote the health of these children and to reduce the burden on these children’s parents. It was an initiative by the Food Consumer Service (under the US Department of Agriculture), the State Departments of Education and funded partly by the federal government. The children receive milk, a protein source, a carbohydrate source, and fruit or vegetables. Fast forward to 2011, and obesity is the fastest-growing problem among school children in America today. However, the food rations have remained the same, leading certain lobby groups to campaign against the food these children are fed with. One argument is that the Department of Agriculture maintains the menu simply to promote farmers within the continent, and the federal government has turned a blind eye to these protests because of the mutual interests of a number of organizations. However, not many Americans know about or bother to investigate these issues, and the voice of the protestors is nothing but a flicker. This is a perfect illustration of Helco’s concepts on issue networks in the United States. Public Administration Training Implications of Helco’s Concept Three key elements of issue networks affect the training of public administrators. First, Issue networks seeks for what is complex in what would otherwise be easy issues. Members within a policy network realize that policy objectives are mostly vague, and results are difficult to measure. Participants, therefore, juggle these complexities, and d emand that all experts within the different fields have the knowledge and ability to juggle these complexities too. Secondly, Helco’s concept argues that issue networks help to bring consensus among different interest groups. Government policies are usually aimed at ensuring there is a right outcome on an issue. However, the definitions of what is right being not always clear. Iron triangles are usually formed to campaign for what they think is right, and the result is always consensus. Finally, issue networks tend to go against what most politicians, who end up in being the policy markets, believe in. The norm in politics was to take credit for success, avoid appearing weak and focus on an opponent’s weaknesses. Today, policy networks have placed politicians on the back foot. Taking credit for matters makes the politician appear to lack knowledge of intricate policies. Spreading blame threatens certain established institutions and may raise expectations in the politic ian to levels beyond their means. Issue networks have, therefore, created lukewarm policy makers. Alteration of the Role of Public Administration, Caused by Helco’s Concept Helco’s view on issue networks does not change the types of jobs and tasks that public administrators perform, but alters the manner in which they are done. It sensitizes them towards formulation and implementation of public policies. Policies must favor as many stakeholders as possible or certain iron triangles are bound to protest against it. There is only one argument that could be raised regarding the role of issue networks in changing the types of jobs. The argument that public administrators perform is that there are some networks that have been known to influence public administrators. At times, the pressure applied by these external interest groups is positive, while, at times, they serve the selfish interest of these groups. Alteration to My Thinking As a public administrator, there are two ways that Helco’s concept has changed my view towards being a public administrator. First, it has made me aware that the American public pays less attention to issue networks than they ought to. This means that it is easy for a small iron triangle to influence how public policies are made and implemented. Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, issue networks could promote fair policy making by promoting consensus among policy makers. They ensure that when a public decision is made, different stakeholders within society get a fair ruling. Although this may create vague policies, at least the interests of the majority are served in the long run. Not all members of society can be pleased, but democracy dictates that at least a large majority of the public should benefit from decisions made by public officers. Friedrich’s and Finer’s Central Ideas Case study: Torture In his text, Friedrich’s central idea is that administrative responsibility is at a much wi der scope at the moment, and it is no longer simply a responsibility for executing formulated policies (Stillman, 2009). In essence, he means that when a policy has been formulated, it does not mean that those charged with administering it are only responsible to themselves, but they are responsible to other parties as well. They have a responsibility to ensure that the interests of the majority are met in a fair and legal manner. However, an unfair action has to be carried out for the benefit of the greater effect then the action could be justified. Finer shares a similar principle. He argues that public servants are responsible to the elected representatives of the public. These representatives have the right to determine the cause of action of all these public servants to the smallest degree feasible. This is one of the core values of democracy. Torture has often been justified as a necessary evil, required to extract information or achieve results for the benefit of the majority . Friedrich’s argues that the administration has the greatest responsibility to the majority. When all else fails, torture may be justified as a means to an end. Finer’s sentiment lies along the same line. However, he specifies that decisions such as these have to be passed through a hierarchical judicial system for approval. The actions of a person are accountable to a number of other people. Abu Gharib The central argument in the torture case is that it is justified to torture a prisoner of war if certain conditions are met. A scenario is given, where there is a ticking time bomb, and a prisoner has been captured and is believed to have some information about his bomb. The only condition that would warrant torture is if the suspect knew the location of the ticking bomb, and if he was aware of the planned attack. In addition, all other means of obtaining information have to be exhausted before torture is resorted to. Public administrators, in this case the federal gov ernment and the prison services, had the responsibility to ensure that a majority of the citizens are secure, according to Friedrich. In the Abu Gharib case, torture would only be justifiable if there was a ‘ticking time bomb’ that the government was aware of. Democracy is based on fundamentals like these. This, unfortunately, was not the case, since these prisoners were arrested at random with insufficient evidence of terrorist activity. Finer argues that there must be an external agency that has authority over a person or an entity. It is vital that an administrative structure exist (Stillman, 2009). Without an oversight body, it is easy to have prisoners tortured and treated unfairly in the hands of their captors. If, however, the hierarchical judicial system comes to the decision that torture has to be used to obtain certain crucial information, then it is justifiable. Friedrich argues that government officials should have a little room to work with the mentality th at prevails in prisons like Abu Gharib, where the responsibility to protect the innocent in America gives soldiers and security personnel a little justification to ‘do whatever is necessary’ to obtain information. Securing public interest One of the best ways to secure public interest is to involve them into the decision making process. Through their elected representatives, every scenario, decision and matter that will not bring the majority of the population to harm must be passed to the public for scrutiny. Although it makes the process longer and complicated, it eliminates the danger of a public office that is not adequately monitored and evaluated. Since public office bearers have a responsibility to the citizens, they should avail information that will not harm national security in any way to the hands of the public. Finer’s arguments also support the notion that leaving public institutions in the hands of a few individuals, without creating a link between these institutions and the public, there is bound to be potential for evil. The government sets up various controls measures that individuals and groups must abide to. Without these regulatory measures, the interest of a few will be exalted above the interests of the public. Friedrich, however, gives a slightly different view to the statement above. He argues that government officials ought to be given more room to maneuver, or as he puts it, some space for the ‘inner cheek’. A public official ought to be given some latitude to work in an environment that would be mutually beneficial to the majority. Friedrich’s argument carries some weight, particularity when one considers the amount of a pressure public worker works under. It is difficult enough to have a tough working environment, and adding the pressure expecting perfection and braying for blood at the slightest mishap is unrealistic. Giving public administrators some space to maneuver allows them the luxury to find the best way of carrying out their duties. Dwight Waldo Ethical Behavior in the Public Office One of the most crucial lessons by Waldo was that public office bearers had obligations to different stakeholders. They were obligated to the constitution, law, nation, democracy, family, friends, humanity, God/religion, rules and the profession. These elements are part of the twelve obligations of a public office holder. They bind the public servant, and act as guideposts upon which his career may flourish and most importantly, fulfill his duty. Waldo also teaches the concept of ethical mapping. This is a guidepost upon which one bases his moral standards when making an ethical decision in the work place. The public service sphere is a world full of discordant values that often lead a worker to a the wrong way and makes him unsure of where to make a stand. Ethical mapping, as described by Waldo, is a way of finding ‘where we are’. This helps public servants find a way of proceeding with their professional lives in the work place. The twelve obligations, discussed above, are the main guideposts used when making an ethical map. In addition, Waldo helped to contextualize the idea of public administration in a world where it did not exist at the time. Instead on basing their decision on basic principles, public servants ought to rely on contingent intentions and value pluralism. By basing their decisions only on facts, public figures are less likely to take into account the needs of the community around them. Basing decisions on values, on the other hand, enhances an individual’s sense of obligation towards the community that he serves. Compare and Contrast The case study ‘George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA’ describes a small restaurant in Virginia where CIA officers were frequent visitors. Apart from its famous beer-soaked chilly dogs, the restaurant was also known for one unique feature: the officers were never give n bills by the waitresses. Before leaving, the customers would go to the owner of the restaurant, tell how much they had eaten and paid for their meal before they left. This example is used to illustrate how Waldo’s theory of ethical mapping and obligations towards, among other things, humanity, could be applied to help improve honor and honesty within a community. On the flip side of the coin, the case ‘The Blast in Centralia No.5’ describes how 111 miners died after an explosion rocked a small town in Illinois. The mine within which the explosion took place belonged to Centralia Coal Co. The government had the responsibility to ensure that all mines were inspected for worker safety. The deaths were caused by ignited explosives that were fired in a non-permissible and dangerous manner. An investigation later revealed that the possible causes of fire were the shot firers and their open fires. The manager of the mine was later charged with failing to safeguard the mine. These two stories show contradicting sides to Waldo’s lessons on public administration and ethics. As it has been discussed already, the CIA officers felt an obligation to the cafà © to pay for their orders. The mine’s administrators, on the other hand, were not interested in ensuring the mine remained safe for its workers. The government also felt no sense of obligation towards the nation and its citizens by failing to close down the mine after inspecting it and finding it did not meet the required safety standards. If the management of the mine and the officers responsible for inspecting it were able to follow the ethical sense of doing their business rather than being driven by business principle, the accident might have been prevented. Important Lessons for Practicing Public Administrators There are three main lessons that public administrators are able to take away from the contrasting stories above. First, the main aim of a public administrator’s j ob is to ensure that their work is for the benefit of the majority in society. They are meant to be guided by their personal values and not by the systems and its values. Using Waldo’s obligations as guideposts, they should develop the ability to make decisions and carry out their duties based on their personal values. Using an ethical map is a convenient way to get started. Ethical maps help public administrators to know where they stand ethically. Secondly, public administrators need to know what is at stake when they carry out their work. Taking the example of the mine explosion, if the public administrator responsible for inspecting the mine had conducted a thorough job, 111 lives would not have been lost that day. There are certain public administrators that work in highly sensitive public sectors, where small mistakes could put the lives of other people at risk. Such sectors include food, health, sanitation and medicine. Finally, the CIA story may paint a rosy picture o f how public administrators ought to work in the public domain. However, attaining such a high level of discipline and dedication is not a simple task. First of all, as described beforehand, the public domain is not as tightly knotted as the CIA. These are highly-trained individuals who undergo rigorous training to ensure they are completely ready to take on the sensitive nature of their work. However, public administrators should borrow a leaf on how to maintain the rigorous discipline and stick to principles no matter how difficult the working environment is. Reference Stillman, Richard. (2009). Public Administration: Concepts and Cases 9th ed. Stamford: Cengage Learning. This essay on Public Administration was written and submitted by user Jared Gallagher to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Public Administration Introduction Public administration is the study, development, and effectuation of the different subdivisions of government policies. Public administration goals involve quest for public good by improving public service that encompasses civil society. Civil servants are the key players in public administration whereby, they run all activities from data collection and analysis, through legislation to execution of government activities.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Public Administration specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Research Methods There is different research methods applied in public administration including applied and pure research. Pure research, also known as fundamental research involves carrying out research to improve knowledge on some given basic issues. Elementary, basic research is involved in rebutting existing theories. On the other hand, applied research uses established theories and available i nformation to study a given case to establish certain purpose. Literature review sets in here whereby researchers read the available literature on a given subject to draw as many points as possible addressing the question under study. On the other hand, McNabb (2002) posits that, â€Å"Research is exploratory when you use no earlier model as a basis of your study† (p. 23). This research method is useful where there is earlier research on the subject under study. Hawthorne effect is also a research methodology whereby â€Å"subjects improve an aspect of their behavior being experimentally measured simply in response to the fact that they are being studied, not in response to any particular experimental manipulation† (McNabb, 2002, p. 26). Finally, research methodologies apply both dependent and independent variables. Independent variables are present at the start of study whilst dependent variables result from the study process and they depend on the independent ones. P ublic Policy Analysis Public policy analysis is â€Å"determining which of various alternative policies will most achieve a given set of goals in light of the relations between the policies and the goals† (Knoepfel, Larrue Varone, 2007, p. 4). Policy makers have to write a scenario whereby they postulate futuristic occurrences in future and plan for them now.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More After coming up with a futuristic scenario, policy makers now consider satisfying versus optimizing. Here they ‘suffice’ a situation by seeking to meet a given standards for sufficiency reasons as opposed to looking for an optimal solution in the optimization process. Satisfying ties closely to bounded rationality whereby after failing to come up with an optimal solution, policy makers they apply bonded rationality to employ their reason only after having greatly mo dified the available choices. Eventually, they carry out cost-benefit analysis to establish how their planned proposal will turn out if implemented. This involves adding all merits and subtracting all demerits and the difference points out whether a proposal is viable or not. A positive difference signifies a viable proposal whilst a negative balance signifies a null proposal. A well-quantified cost-benefit analysis is a clear indicator of how successful a policy would be if implemented. After this period, policy makers look for opportunities when the probability of adopting the new policies is high usually above normal chances. According to Knoepfel, Larrue and Varone (2007), these opportunities are called policy windows (p. 18). If policy makers identify a policy window, they seize it and embark on policy implementation process. This process involves putting to action the developed policy through the appropriate agencies to target groups. The crucial part of policy implementation is the transaction phase for it contributes largely to success or failure of any policy. Policy makers hand over to implementers; however, there has to be a feedback system for monitoring purposes. Public Personnel Management According to Klingner and Nalbandian (2002), public personnel management involves â€Å"public personnel and personnel administration whereby, public personnel are the employees of federal, state, local, and nonprofit agencies† (p. 13). Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) deals with ensuring people get public service jobs on merit without favoritism. Part of EEOC is to carry out performance appraisals to retain competent workers through analyzing quality performance. Corresponding managers carry out these appraisals but they are governed by EEOC stipulations. Generally, employees air their views through collective bargaining systems whereby they use trade unions to lobby for some bargaining like payment increment.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Public Administration specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Public personnel management also involves unemployment compensation that seeks to give newly employed workers partial wages and to stabilize economy during rough economic times like recession time. Even though the U.S. Department of Labor Laws has the mandate to supervise these compensations, Klingner and Nalbandian (2002) states that different States run their independent programs. Sometimes back, public administration managers tried to adopt the theory of scientific management theory, which states that, â€Å"workers should be paid according to the amount of production† (Klingener Nalbandian, 2002, p. 37). However, this was rejected after realizing it was counterproductive. In case a worker is injured, he or she is compensated through workers’ compensation systems that â€Å"provides compensation medical care for employees who are injure d in the course of employment, in exchange for mandatory relinquishment of the employee’s right to sue his or her employer for the tort of negligence† (Klingner Nalbandian, 2002, p. 29). The compensation procedures here depend on worker-employer agreement. Administrative law Administrative law deals with disputing official power with heavy political influences. â€Å"Administrative law is concerned with defining the powers of the state, protecting, limiting the rights, and liberties of citizens† (Head, 2005, p. 1). Administrative law checks issues like misfeasance, malfeasance, and nonfeasance. According to Head (2005), nonfeasance occurs when an employee fails to do work after realizing that, he or she has to do some duties not stipulated in contract (p. 16). Instead of absconding duties, an employee may decide to do them poorly, a situation known as malfeasance. Reasons for malfeasance vary. For instance, workers may do work poorly to protest appointment of a manager they are not interested in. On the other side, misfeasance is â€Å"an action against the holder of a public office, alleging in essence that the office-holder has misused or abused his or her power† (Head, 2005, p. 23). Administrative law deals with all these forms of conducts. Administrative laws encompass other laws as sunshine laws that allow individuals to access information kept by government. These laws postulate legal procedures through which individuals may follow to request and access information held by government. In many cases, to access government held information, one incurs high costs or barred by standard requirements; however, sunshine laws give a way out of this stalemate.Advertising Looking for essay on public administration? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Decisions made by government agencies are subject to judicial review for the protection of bill of rights and Administrative Procedure Act (APA) governs this. Administrative law seeks to enhance accountability in public service through Ethics in Government Act. This act requires upper level members of executive, legislature, and judiciary to give an annual account for the money earned in a year citing all the sources. Through this practice, corruption in public service is reduced to minimum levels if not levels. Organizational Theory Organizational theory is â€Å"is the study of organizations for the benefit of identifying common themes for the purpose of solving problems, maximizing efficiency and productivity, and meeting he needs of stakeholders† (Barzilai, 2007). Organizational culture plays a key role the success of an organization. According to Barzilai (2007), organizational culture is â€Å"the specific collection of values and norms that are shared by people and gr oups in an organization and that control the way they interact with each other and with stakeholders outside the organization.† This culture comes with organizational values that define set strategies to achieve organization’s goal. Communication in any organization forms the backbone of smooth running. However, communication barriers like assumptions hinder smooth flow of information and may affect running of an organization. Employers should learn to overcome these barriers and one of the ways to do so is through three-dimensional communication. This implies that information will flow upward, downwards and laterally to eliminate any form of assumption hence overcoming the barriers and improving overall communication for improved productivity. Workers need motivation; this is achieved through applying McGregor’s Theory X, and Y. Theory X involves giving workers incentives to boost their morale in work while Theory Y involves creating good environment for ambitio us workers to develop their abilities. In organization, social networks improve productivity just like human capital like education. These social networks define social capital and organizations emphasize on it the same way they emphasize on college education, which defines human capital. Finally, working in informal groups enhance organization’s performance by bringing diversity together to achieve a common goal; group work prevents collapse incase a key worker resigns from a given department. Ethics Ethics in public administration addresses the issue of morality, dealing with concepts such as â€Å"good and bad, right and wrong, justice, and virtue† (Sheeran, 1993, p. 1). In public administration, ethics are outlined in a code commonly known as code of ethics that governs conduct in work place. Code of ethics seeks to achieve several goals at administration and public levels. Ethics in work place call for workers to have moral responsibility and do what they are obli ged to do. By adopting such responsibility, organizations are run smoothly because workers know what to do. In public service, workers have different rights to ensure that ethics are upheld in work place. For instance, contractual rights allow workers to highlight their claims to their principals for it lobbies for mutual understanding between employers and employees. Sheeran (1993) observes that contractual rights resonate with the golden rule that, â€Å"Do unto others as you would have them do unto you† (p. 6). It is mutual understanding between two parties. Public administrators come across both positive and negative rights whereby, the former describes the rights to take action whilst the latter describes the rights to take inaction. These rights may result from cognitive dissonance whereby individuals do not clearly know what ideas to uphold and which to discard. Therefore, in a bid to cover this indecisiveness and inconsistency in beliefs, they may exercise positive or negative rights leading to action or inaction. Nevertheless, it is important to note that, exercising positive or negative rights does not emerge necessarily from cognitive dissonance. It may result from a genuine call in cases where workers feel any form of violation. However, regardless of the motive behind action, whether it is a genuine one or not, workers have moral rights that permit them to air their views and call for integrity in work place. Moral rights may also entail inalienable rights not governed by the law. Governmental Budgeting According to Keith (2008), government budgeting is â€Å"the critical exercise of allocating revenues and borrowed funds to attain the economic and social goals of a country† (p. 4). Governmental spending sometimes involves discretionary spending which gives planners the option of making choices on whether to spend or not. Planners also opt to give tax deferrals enabling a taxpayer to pay his or her taxes in the future. This form of t ax payment is cheaper than paying tax now. Sometimes the deferral maybe indefinite meaning the taxpayer will never pay for the same. In the process of governmental budgeting, planners apportion finances to different projects that are projected in the fiscal plan. This is to ensure that the available finances are apportioned well and spread over all departments and sectors to avoid misappropriation. In some cases, government planners resort to zero-based budgeting whereby, â€Å"planning and decision-making which reverses the working process of traditional budgeting† (Keith, 2008, p. 21). In traditional budgeting, departmental heads seek to rationalize why the current budget should allocate more funds to their departments than the previous budget. However, in zero-based budgeting, all spending in every department is comprehensively reviewed to approve spending. To approve spending, managers are not allowed to refer previous spending; on the contrary, they are expected to justi fy spending from a zero-base. To ensure that departments run smoothly, managers use balanced scorecard (BSC), â€Å"a strategic performance management tool – a semi-standard structured report supported by proven design methods and automation tools that can be used by managers to keep track of the execution of activities by staff within their control and monitor the consequences arising from these actions† (Keith, 2008, p. 36). Government planners have to consider spillover effect, that is, the benefits that come with establishment of multilateral alliances with different states. Conclusion Public administration entails several processes aimed at development and effectuation of the different subdivisions of government policies. There are different branches involved in public administrations as discussed above. Each branch plays a key role towards achieving the goals of public administration that include push for public good by improving public service. Public administra tion marries governmental issues with public interests to create smooth running of a country. Public service workers play a key role in the running of any government at any one given time. Reference List Barzilai, K. (2007). Organizational Theory. Web. Head, M. (2005). Administrative Law: Context and Critique. 2nd ed. Sydney; The Federation Press. Keith, R. (2008). Introduction to The Federal Budget Process. Web. Klingener, D., Nalbandian, J. (2002). Public Personnel Management: Contexts and Strategies. 5th Ed. New York; Prentice Hall. Knoepfel, P., Larrue, C., Varone, F. (2007). Public Policy Analysis. Bristol; The policy Press. Mcnabb, D. (2002). Research Methods in Public Administration and Nonprofit Management. New York; M. E. Sharpe, Inc. Sheeran, P. (1993). Ethics in Public Administration: A Philosophical Approach. West Port; Praeger Publishers. This essay on Public Administration was written and submitted by user Emmy Whitfield to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here. Public administration Public Administration